The endurance reserves
The endurance reserves
- Alexander
Streltsov
This paper received the highest award of the EAA scientific in
2002
In the last decades the
world records for medium and long distances grew with a sufficiently
high rate. In order to improve the results of sportsman the trainers
accepted superficial decisions giving initially an appreciable effect.
The decisions demanded no deep comprehensive analysis and were in
accordance with the extensive development (that is, with the
‘in-breadth’ development) where the loads were primitively summated.
It was
simple. To hold a new record it is necessary to train much and
frequently. After a time, when the record has been established, ones
need to enhance the loads again.
The world records were
bettered. As a result, the duration of runner workouts was extended
also. But the longer is not a better. Even after 8000-9000 km/year runs
it did not always happen that the sportsman solved successfully his
basic task of preparation stage - to show a high result in the main
event.
At the same
time in the sport (including athletics) there is another approach. This
is a way of the quality and intensive development implying an
essentially new kind of runner training. The approach is based on a
theoretical prediction of the results to be planned and allows
essentially to increase the efficiency for a training process of
runners.
In the work it is offered
for runner training to utilize an model based on the purposeful
development of general, force, high-speed and special endurances, the
oxidizing and retractive properties of the muscles and the tissue
breathing in order to establish a reasonable volume-intensity balance
for training process.
Statement
of the task: where to search for reserves?
Before the
training workout of a runner it is necessary to determine the level of
his functional preparation with the help of program ‘ERGOTEST’.
Therefore the runner should run consistently four-kilometer distances
with a speed to be consecutively increased. The rest time between the
distances should be invariable. Immediately after each distance the
cardiac clonus frequency (CCF) is determined.
Ones draw a
diagram for dependence of the CCF (in pulse/min) on the run speed (in
m/sec) and find six parameters. They are:
1. The factor
A specifies an actual functional condition of the sportsman at the time
of testing. The factor depends on the air oxygen delivery to working
muscles.
2. The factor
B gives the minimum value of CCF at the rest and testifies to the runner
recovery, his health and the ability to assume a following load.
3. The run
speed, which is a boundary between the aerobic and anaerobic zones,
allows to create a ramified vascular network and to cultivate the
general endurance.
4. A
magnitude of CCF at the boundary speed of run.
5. The factor
K characterizes the ability for the runner to carry out a training work
at the boundary speed for a long time.
6. The
universal constant St shows the general level of physical readiness at
the moment of the test in view of oxygen transport.
The less is
the parameter A and the higher is the factor St, the sportsman is better
prepared. The ranges of the obtained parameters can be determined for
each level of sportive skill.
The
periodical (once per 3 - 4 weeks) investigations allow to estimate very
quickly each stage of runner training and to correct opportunely the
training plans in order to enhance the functional state for the runner.
Advantages of
the program are the simplicity and the accessibility for the trainer to
apply it at any conditions, the exsanguinity and the absence of
troubling influences on the organism, the pithiness of obtained
information and a possibility to elaborate the individual training
plans.
The ERGOTEST
allows to determine a CCF and a run speed for the mixed
aerobic-anaerobic zone with a high data adequacy, to estimate
quantitatively a level of functional and physical readiness for the
runner, to compare regularly the obtained data with the results to be
modeled.
At an
intensive motor activity the blood flow increases 5-6 times and can
attain up to 30 litters per minute. At a run speed of 3 – 4 m/sec the
vascular network is formed insufficiently. Therefore, when the sportsman
increases the run speed, the oxygen-enriched blood does not managed to
penetrate into vessels.
The creation
of a ramified vascular network and the run speed increase are possible
exclusively at a persistent running with the boundary speed (inside the
mixed aerobic-anaerobic zone) provided a periodical testing. The
boundary speed should be permanently raised in accordance with the test
results.
The
hemoglobin (that is, a protein molecule being part of the blood
erythrocytes) is the unique supplier of oxygen to working muscles in the
organism. In the lungs the oxygen binds with the hemoglobin thereby
giving rise to an oxyhemoglobin. At blood transportation through the
vessels with a low oxygen content the oxyhemoglobin dissociates and
supplies the wanted oxygen to the muscles.
The reaction
of air oxygen with blood hemoglobin occurs in approximately 0.8 seconds.
If to assume that at such an inhalation time the exhalation takes 0.6 –
0.8 seconds, the total respiratory cycle (inhalation plus exhalation)
ensuring a comfortable oxygen saturation regime for the cardiovascular
and muscle systems will last from 1.4 to 1.6 sec.
The
respiration corresponding to such an inspiration duration (38-43
inhalation-exhalation cycles per minute) is obtained at a fast or slow
walking, at a running with the speed up to 14 km/hours.
At a higher
run speed when the working muscles need the increased amount of oxygen
the character of respiration is changed. The respiration becomes more
rapid and less deep. It means that despite of a growing air volume going
through the lungs the intensity of running results in consumptions,
those are problematic for the respiratory organs. The low rate of
oxygen-hemoglobin assimilation is responsible for the consumptions.
At a run
speed of 14-18 km/hour or a respiration frequency of 46-55
inhalation-exhalation cycles per minute (the time of each inspiration
takes 0.55-0.65 seconds) the first signs of tiredness arise. The
hemoglobin has not sufficient time to bind with air oxygen because of
extremely fast change in the phases of inhalation-exhalation cycle.
Employing the anaerobic mechanism of energy supply the working muscles
gather the deficient amount of oxygen. At the time the lactic acid
begins to accumulate intensively in the runner organism.
At a run
speed of 19-24 km/hour or a respiration frequency of 56-85
inhalation-exhalation cycles per minute (the time of each inspiration
takes 0.35-0.54 seconds) the difference between the air inflow and the
oxygen-hemoglobin assimilation becomes more significant. The lactic acid
concentration rises sharply and exceeds essentially the level, which is
necessary to produce the relevant physical effort.
At a run
speed more than 24 km/hour or a respiration frequency more than 85
inhalation-exhalation cycles per minute the respiratory system get out
completely of control. The air feeds runner’s organism in large
quantities, but the oxygen (at the inhalation time about 0.3 seconds) is
not assimilated practically and the anaerobic sources of energy supply
suffices only for 2-5 minutes of work. The sportsman is forced to lower
the speed (the avalanche-like accumulation of lactic acid results in a
sharp drop of physical efficiency) or to stop the run because of the
bronchus spasm.
The
respiration frequency dependence on the inhalation-exhalation cycle time
in the logarithmic coordinates for different run speeds is a direct line
inclined to the axis X at an angle of 45 degrees. The line is described
by the equation:
У
= 1.78 – Х ,
(1)
where Y is
the decimal logarithm of the respiration frequency and X is the decimal
logarithm of the inhalation-exhalation cycle time.
The negative values for Y
testifies that if the respiration frequency is more than 61
inhalation-exhalation cycles per minute and the time of each inspiration
is less than 0.49 seconds (that corresponds to 2.35-2.40 for 1 km) the
total failure of respiratory system happens. No quality and extended
work at such a speed is possible. Despite of an essential increase in
the pulmonary ventilation volume, the degree of blood saturation by air
oxygen is considerably reduced.
At the time
the carbon dioxide, which is generated both in the gas exchange
reactions O2®CO2
and in oxidation reaction of fats and carbohydrates, is accumulated in
the organism because of serious difficulties for CO2
removing. In the respiratory center the excitation of CO2
sensitive nervous cells increases. Hence the respiration becomes more
rapid in order to remove the excess in carbon dioxide. However the time
of each inhalation decreases also.
From incoming
air the oxygen is utilized in less amounts, but the carbon dioxide is
accumulated because of the rapid sigh. The runner gets into a closed
loop and finally drives himself in such conditions when he receives no
oxygen from air and the carbon dioxide amount is so high that any
further motion is practically impossible.
His deep and
convulsive respiration after finish (the very rapid inhalation and the
utterly slow exhalation) testifies to a lactic acid excess, which should
be removed as quickly as possible.
The sportsman desires to provide an inflow of sufficient oxygen amount
from air and thereby to provide a comfortable regime for work of the
cardiovascular and muscle systems on the whole distance. On the other
hand, attaining the high result in a medium- or long-distance race the
runner is faced with a difficulty to control the respiratory center,
which increases automatically the respiration frequency in order to drop
the carbon dioxide concentration up to normal one.
This contradiction can be
resolved only by modifying the existing respiration regime during the
race. The rational management of this function in the race will allow
the runners to raise considerably their fitness for work.
A new
respiration technique to be considered in the work allows to supply air
oxygen to the working muscles proportionally with the physical load and
to postpone the moment of weariness to lower the cardiac clonus
frequency and to enhance the efficiency of training process practically
for any run speed.
The
artificial oxygen enrichment of inhaled air is performed during the run.
A stereotype for the new respiration implementation is memorized already
after 3 - 4 days with the help of regular trainings (initially the
consciousness controls the accordance between respiration and motional
elements).
For the first
time the potential of the new respiration technique for the running was
demonstrated in a pedagogical experiment in 1992. In February of the
same year in Moscow Central Scientific Research Institute "«Sports"
another research experiment was performed. Five Masters of USSR sports
and Masters of USSR sports of the international class (the sports
specialization is the distances of 800 m and 1500 m, the trainers are
Elianov Y. I. and Styrkina S. P.) took part in the experiment.
In February
5, 1992 in the first series of experiments on running along a streaming
track (tredban) the frequency of respiratory inhalation-exhalation
cycles (RF), the cardiac clonus frequency, the volume flow rate of
respiration (VFRR) and the concentration of lactic acid (lactate) were
measured for sportsmen at speeds of 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0 and 5.5
m/sec.
At
each speed the duration of running was 3 minutes. Then tredban was
switched to more high speed without stopping.
On the 6-9th February the
sportsmen were trained in the new respiration technique at scheduled
trainings. From the methodical point of view the quality of trainings
was the same. Only the natural respiration (even for the high-speed
pieces) was completely replaced by the new one.
On the 10th
of February the second series of experiments was carried out with the
same tredban speeds and the equipment. An only distinction – the runners
applied the new mastered respiration technique in running.
Naturally,
essential changes in their preparation and a leap in the results are
impossible after four days. However, at applying the new respiration
technique, the sportsman organisms got by 30-40 percents of oxygen
amount more then at natural respiration. The RF lowered by 30-35
percents, the VFRR - by 10-20 percents and the lactate amount - by 25-50
percents. All runners began to work more economically and their oxygen
demand began to meet the amount of oxygen supplied to working muscles.
Potentially the runners were ready to show higher results. However they
could not realize psychologically and physically that.
Table 1 shows
experimental results for O. Nelubova (Master of USSR sports of the
international class).
|
Speed of tredban run |
VFRR, l/min |
CCF,
pulse/min |
RF,
min |
Lactate, millimole/l |
|
M/sec |
km/h |
NAT |
NEW |
NAT |
NEW |
NAT |
NEW |
NAT |
NEW |
|
3,0 |
10,8 |
35,5 |
35,5 |
118 |
111 |
33 |
21 |
2,5 |
1,4 |
|
3,5 |
12,6 |
44,7 |
38,7 |
129 |
122 |
36 |
21 |
1,9 |
1,5 |
|
4,0 |
14,4 |
57,3 |
46,7 |
143 |
135 |
44 |
27 |
2,4 |
1,4 |
|
4,5 |
16,2 |
64,7 |
57,0 |
158 |
145 |
47 |
30 |
2,6 |
1,6 |
|
5,0 |
18,0 |
81,0 |
72,7 |
167 |
160 |
52 |
34 |
6,9 |
3,7 |
|
5,5 |
19,8 |
110,0 |
99,1 |
173 |
168 |
57 |
39 |
9,0 |
5,1 |
Table 1. Comparison of two different respiration types
for O. Nelubova (NAT – natural
respiration, NEW - new respiration)
For all
participants of experiment the oxygen and pulse expenses per one meter
of distance has decreased by 10 - 15 percents. In particular, for O.
Nelubova such a simple (only mechanical) replacement of one respiration
by another has reduced the energy consumption by 12 percents.
In 1996
leading Polish marathoners Leshek Beblo (the 15th position in the world
classification with the result of 2:09.41 in 1995) and Grzhegosh Gaidus
(the 20th position, 2:09.49 - 20) have decided to master the new
respiration technique.
On the 8th
May Beblo has run 12 km with the natural respiration (30 circles in a
stadium) at a speed of 3.20 for 1 km. The CCF was measured during the
whole race. A blood sample for estimation of the lactic acid
concentration was taken immediately after the race termination.
On the 11th
and 14th of May (that is, only after two and five days accordingly)
Beblo has repeated the experiment again with the new just mastered
respiration technique. Table 2 shows his results.
|
Date |
Respiration technique |
Run speed, min.sec per kilometer |
Cardiac clonus frequency
(pulse/min) after each race kilometer
|
Lactate concentration,
millimole/l |
|
|
|
|
1 |
3 |
5 |
8 |
10 |
12 |
|
|
8.05.96 |
NAT |
3.20 |
165 |
168 |
172 |
174 |
172 |
171 |
9.4 |
|
11.05.96 |
NEW |
3.20 |
159 |
162 |
165 |
169 |
165 |
169 |
5.2 |
|
14.05.96 |
NEW |
3.20 |
154 |
154 |
153 |
160 |
162 |
165 |
3.65 |
Table 2. The
frequency of cardiac clonus and the lactic acid concentration for Leshek
Beblo applying two different types of respiration in the race.
Five days
later Beblo’s level of lactic acid has decreased more than by 60
percents. What were causes of such changes?
First of all,
it is an elongation of the inhalation time by the factor from 1.5 to 3.0
and, hence, a rise in the duration of reaction between air oxygen and
blood hemoglobin.
Secondly, it
is an increase in the rate of oxygen assimilation from inhaled air.
Third, at the
new regime of respiration for the runner a better oxygen penetration
into the blood is promoted by the increase in the intralung air
pressure.
Fourthly, it
is a more complete removal of carbon dioxide from the organism of
sportsman.
Fifthly, a
smaller air volume goes through the lungs.
Sixthly, the
respiratory muscles works at a cyclic instead of a statical (as for the
natural respiration) regime.
Seventhly, at
a cyclic regime the thorax efforts requires much less the energy than at
a static one.
As a result,
running 1 km with a speed of 3.20 at the new respiration regime, Beblo
possessed exactly the same respiration frequency and the same energy
consumption as with the natural respiration when he run 1 km at a speed
of 4.20.
The total
concentration of lactic acid (3.65 millimole/l) is a veritable one and
corresponds to the physical expenses at a speed of 3.20 per kilometer.
The initial
value 9.4 millimole/l was due to the only fact that Beblo’s inhalation
duration at the natural respiration was insufficient to provide
completely the working muscles with air oxygen. Therefore Beblo’s
organism was forced to apply anaerobic sources of energy supply in order
to compensate these debts.
The frequency
dependence on the time of respiratory cycles in logarithmic coordinates
for the new respiration technique is a direct line, which is inclined to
the axis X at an angle of 45 degrees and, similar to equation 1,
described by the equation:
У
= 1.78 - Х
, (2)
where Y is
the decimal logarithm of the respiration frequency at the new regime for
different run speeds and the quantity X is the decimal logarithm of the
time of single respiratory cycle.
Notice that
in this case the region of negative values is practically absent. This
region can be achieved only for a respiration frequency, which exceeds a
value of 61 respiratory cycles in minute, that meets to a run speed
about 2.00 per kilometer.
The new
respiration is very economic. At the regime there are no excesses of
lactic acid and there are conditions for the growth of sports results.
But such a growth becomes rather problematic without a specialized
muscle preparation.
The road to
sports skill
The running
is traditionally supposed to play the main role in muscle system
improvement. Often ones forget that the development of muscles, those
adopt rapidly to physical loads, is due to the motion. The potential of
the cardiovascular and respiratory systems mismatches to the muscle one.
The primitive summation of loads has no sense and goes to an
unproductive spending of energy.
All dynamic
workout for medium- and long-distance runners must be carried out at a
regime, which admits no muscle relaxations, when the muscle pumping
principle is kept. Then muscles are vastly tired (they "burn") becoming
bloodshot. The workout rate - from the moderate up to above the average.
The repetition number for each exercise - up to the mortal fatigue (‘to
the full’), the number of approaches to the exercise - no more than two.
A special
attention should be given to muscles of the buttocks and the back femur
surface. These muscles push ahead the sportsman on a leg. The
development of these muscle groups is very important to achieve a high
result.
The crus
muscles (the sural and plaice-like ones) is important also. They must
possess a large strength and volume in order that, not falling on the
heel, the runner could hold on the high foot for the whole distance.
From the
diagram (the coordinates are: the single step time in second, the step
number per minute and the step length in meter) ones can determine the
most optimal and economic frequency of steps per minute. The frequency
is constant for any run speed and equals 244 steps per minute. Increase
of the run speed should result only in a rise in the length for each
step.
Fig. 1.
Change in the step length and in the step number as a function of the
run speed: 1 - 500 m/min, 2 - 450 m/min, 3 - 400 m/min, 4 - 350 m/min, 5
- 300 m/min.
Knowing the
optimal number of steps, those should be performed by the runner, it is
very easily to calculate an exercise duration for the complete imitation
of necessary efforts.
For example,
for a distance 800 m it is planned to show the result 1.46,7. This
result is transformed to m/sec (7.5 m/sec) and from the formula:
У
= 0.246 * Х , ( 3
)
(Y is the
step length in meters, X is the run speed in m/sec, 0.246 is the
correction factor) we obtain the length of each step (1.845 m). Then we
divide 800 m by this quantity and calculate the number (217) of paired
steps, those should be performed by the runner on this distance.
At a single
exercise the sportsman carries out 217 non-stop flexions and erections
(instead of 70 or even 100) by the legs. For instance, after 10 times of
70 jumps each, as a result, he has the same 70 jumps instead of 700. The
same approach can be applied to running. After 8 or 10 races of 400 m
each the runner has finally the same 400 m instead of 3200 or 4000 m.
The new
respiration technique allow the runner to attain planned results in
force training much faster since such a work is problematic at the
natural respiration. This work is executed at anaerobic conditions when
the carbohydrate hydrolysis results quickly in an avalanche-like
accumulation of glucose blocking all efforts of the sportsman.
The new
respiration technique allows the sportsman to continue his work at the
aerobic regime and to mobilize the lipidic metabolism, which occurs only
at a low glucose content and acts for a sufficiently long time.
For example,
in the first force training the sportsman A (the sports specialization –
400 and 800 m, the 1st class) has executed a weight-lifting by legs with
a weight equal to the own one (80 kg). The exercise was made 39 times on
a simulator "platform" with a given rate at the “to-the-full” regime. In
the 10th training the exercise was carried out 240 times already, in
18th - 240 times with a weight exceeding the own one by a factor of 1.25
(that is, 100 kg).
In the first
training the sportsman K. has jumped out 32 times upright from the squat
position, in the 4th - 48 times and in the 7th - even 75 times.
As against the force, the force
endurance has no limit for the growth of sports results. Therefore the
muscle system should be the main object of attention and the intensive
muscle work must outstrip the distance speed.
It is
necessary also to engage closely in training of the respiratory muscular
system, which contribution in the final result is significant.
The training
of the new respiration technique at a static body position (the sitting,
standing or laying position) allows to imitate a running with any given
speed and duration, to cultivate fast an breath automatism for running,
to develop the intercostal muscles, to improve the pulmonary teethridge
functioning, to clear the lungs, to accelerate the rehabilitation
process after intense physical loads (in a sense, there is an oxygen
pumping), to raise the bronchus passability, to strengthen the nervous
system, to promotes a prevention from the catarrhal diseases.
Setting a
certain regime of implementation, it is possible to train the
respiratory muscles to the highest possible speed, which is unattainable
frequently in race. It is very important that such a training would
outstrip the current distance speed and be functionally adopted to this
speed.
Basing on a
planned result for the main competitive distance, it is offered also to
apply a table of the physical and the functional potential of sportsman
in order to develop the high-speed endurance and to control the training
process.
Let us
transform the world record table for the distances from 200 m up to the
marathon in order to determine the averaged speeds per kilometer and to
calculate a speed difference. As a result, training at a more intense
high-speed regime and then running the same distance more slowly by 1
sec only, the runner is capable to overcome a longer interval. It takes
place because at a high run speeds the muscles work more intensively and
each step becomes longer. With a lower speed the step length is
decreased and the muscles work already in a sparing regime.
The time,
which should be shown by the runner on shorter pieces for muscle
training to the result to be planned for the main competitive distance,
is found from the formula, which takes into account also the physical
weariness accumulated with the increase in distance length.
As an
example, Table 3 gives the speed for intermediate pieces. The speed is
calculated for the distance of 800 m (men).
|
Averaged
speed in km/sec for slower run |
1
km = 2.25,625 |
1
km = 2.15,625 |
1
km = 2.13,125 |
1
km =2.11,875 |
1
km = 2.08,125
|
|
Length of
intermediate distance in meter |
1sec = 378.3 m |
1 sec = 85
m |
1 sec = 85
m |
1 sec = 34.5 m |
1 sec = 34.5 m
|
|
60 |
8.6 |
7.6 |
7.4 |
6.6 |
6.4 |
|
100 |
14..3 |
12.7 |
12.5 |
11.1 |
10.8 |
|
150 |
21.5 |
19.2 |
18.8 |
16.9 |
16.4 |
|
200 |
28.8 |
25.7 |
25.2 |
22.9 |
22.1 |
|
250 |
36.0 |
32.2 |
31.6 |
29.0 |
28.0 |
|
300 |
43.2 |
38.9 |
38.1 |
35.2 |
34.1 |
|
350 |
50.5 |
45.6 |
44.7 |
41.6 |
39.2 |
|
400 |
57.8 |
52.3 |
51.3 |
48.1 |
46.6 |
|
450 |
1.05.1 |
59.1 |
58.0 |
54.8 |
53.1 |
|
500 |
1.12.4 |
1.06.0 |
1.04.8 |
1.01.6 |
59.7 |
|
550 |
1.19.7 |
1.12.9 |
1.11.6 |
1.08.5 |
1.06.5 |
|
600 |
1.27.0 |
1.19.9 |
1.18.4 |
1.15.6 |
1.13.4 |
|
650 |
1.34.4 |
1.27.0 |
1.25.4 |
1.22.9 |
1.20.4 |
|
700 |
1.41.7 |
1.34.1 |
1.32.3 |
1.30.3 |
1.27.6 |
|
750 |
1.49.1 |
1.41.2 |
1.39.4 |
1.37.8 |
1.35.0 |
|
800 |
1.56.5 |
1.48.5 |
1.46.5 |
1.45.5 |
1.42.5 |
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Table 3. The
results, which should be attained for individual intermediate pieces at
control starts or competitions. The competitive distance is 800 m.
To attain a
result of 1.56,5 for the 800 m competition distance the sportsman is
seen from Table 3 to need not to run 200 m for 25 sec and faster in the
training. If he run a 200 m distance for the time of 28.8 sec he is
ready physically to the planned result. Therefore it is necessary to
increase the distance length: 250, 300, 350 m and up to a length where
he is not able to run with a speed specified from Table 3. If the
sportsman attains a required speed for the piece the distance length
should be automatically increased by 50 m.
In such a
training the functional qualities are developed much faster and the
table allows to carry out a persistent control of training process.
There are no need to run repeatedly the pieces with a speed, which is
much less than calculated one.
The result
1.46,5 demands higher speeds and falls in another high-speed range.
Therefore the specialized force training should be more solid.
Furthermore
it is necessary to develop the tissue respiration, that is, to imitate
the competitive conditions in training process (the program ‘maxi’).
Although for the pieces selected in a predetermined manner the run speed
exceeds the competitive one and the anaerobic threshold, because of
piece shortness there is no excessive accumulation of lactic acid.
The
mitochondria of cells, in which the fats and the carbohydrates are
transformed in an oxidizing energy of muscles, are actively developed
only under conditions of the competitive regime.
The sportsmen are forced
often to develop the necessary qualities through a series of
competitions, since in the spade-work period
they do not know how to make an
effective muscle training on the force endurance program and to increase
successfully the mass and the power of cell mitochondria without an
unpredictable accumulation of glucose in their organisms.
The larger is
the start number, the higher is the training level. But the force
endurance and the mitochondria are developed, if the start number is no
less than 1 - 2 per two weeks.
If the break
between competitions will be longer than three weeks the vascular
network and the cell mitochondria (developed by such a hard work) begin
to curtail. Hence the achieved level of the high-speed and the force
endurance will drop.
CONCLUSION
Thus the
model of training for medium- and long-distance runners can be
represented as:
